Pyschlogical Analysis of Zombie Apocalypse Survivors Essay

The door slams shut as you force your weight against it. Two people whom you have never met before, merely joined during your sprint, grab the largest object in the room and wedge it in front of the door. A second later the fist of the undead outside pound on the door in attempts to get in. â€Å"We have to get out of here! † one of the others screams immediately. But why? It seems that whether it be a decrepit cabin in the woods or a home or a mall; nothing seems to be good enough for the survivors. Step one of a survival plan always seems to start with the word Escape. A casual movie buff may simply see a character’s reaction as an irrational snap decision, however, through a psychological and sociological examination, one can come to better understand of character’s pleas. One cannot assume that the character just wishes to put distance between themselves and their attackers; especially not during a zombie apocalypse. Lets take a look at George A. Romeo’s 2004 Dawn of the Dead for a moment. The mall was well defended, surely had adequate food, and they were completely surrounded. Why attempt an escape to somewhere that was referred to as â€Å"†¦an island that for all we know doesn’t even exist. †? Environmental Psychology The viewer must examine sever different aspect of the scenario that the characters are being put into. The environment itself is a large factor in the equation; also to be considered is the group dynamics and stresses that are arising. Finally, and perhaps more importantly, the risks. All of these factors of the situation in which the characters are placed can alone, or collectively, cause a people in any shelter to decide to leave. Potentially the largest determining element of any long termed survival could be the environmental aspect. Setting aside the obvious insecurities of poor shelters, try to look at the other features someone would like in their dwellings. Imagine several different locations, all equally safe for argument’s sake, an office building, a mall, a school, a prison. Some options aren’t quite as appealing as others. These differences can be seen the best by using environmental psychology to understand what a groups wants within a shelter. Someone can use environmental psychology to study an individual or a group in a social context by looking at the places where people are at and examining the perceptions, attitudes, evaluations and representations, and the accompanying behaviors (Kazdin 421). In almost any movie where the suggestion of getting out is brought up, we can look at some of the characters’ perceptions and attitudes to see that the location has fallen short of being perfect for the survivors. The environment is a relationship between individuals and their life spaces. That means not only should the environment provide us with all that we need to survive but also the spaces in which to appreciate, understand, and act to fulfill higher needs and aspirations (423). This leads to the question then of; if we cannot look at it simply as a space to stay in, then how should we look at it? The answer is that a place is not simple an empty building or space; it is, but also it is an expression of an idea or of a culture. Made to be warm and encourage relaxation, or cold and sterile to promote work and organization (420). An office building is plain, organized, and open. The idea of an office is to have very little distraction away from the work. The coloring is usually white to keep from distracting the eye or drawing attachment by employees. Typically a person enjoys a place with more color and not as structured. A good example of this idea of attachment and welcome is seen in Edgar Wright’s Shaun of the Dead, where they chose to go to a local bar call The Winchester mainly off of the fact that is was a familiar place that they visited frequently. Altman and Chemers (1980) identified three types or levels of territory: Primary territory (e. g. home or private office space), where usually only one or two people are in control of its organization. The area is highly personalized and more easily draws attachment from a person. Secondary territories (e. g. , the classroom or open plan office), These areas are intended for larger groups but control of the area is temporary and personalization is minimal. Public territory (e. g. , the street, parks), where there is no personalization and the area is very open making protection difficult if not impossible (424). Most often primary territories are too constrained to allow for large groups to reside there for long periods. Secondary territories are typically the ones seen being used as in Dawn of the Dead where they use a mall and also in Day of the Dead where they take shelter in a large military base. They exist in a larger area but they also can retreat to a person area where they have customized a private area to their own preferences. A public place, as seen in George A. Romero’s Land of the Dead is one of few cases where such a large area is uses as a refuge. While this landscape did allow for comfortable private area’s for a select, elite few, the majority of the people lived on the streets in discontent and resentment for the others. In this scenario we can clearly see the breakdown of the environmental factors as some survivors mention escaping to Canada (an area believe to be safe from the zombie plague) even though all the citizens at this point were protected. Ideally, territories are controllable spaces that serve to allow for the personalization and regularization of who comes in. This idea, territoriality, then actually provides an actual function in being able to allow people to have a feeling of safety, predictability, order, and stability in their own surroundings (424) In movies where a group of people are kept up in a larger secure area, and they have a private space, we can then look at its own function. Understand what is involved in private space. Personal space is important for not only an individual but also the well being of the community (424). It allows people to escape from each other whenever we need a break from everything. It is our own spot to go and relax for a while as we do some personal work or just even think without having others come by and interrupt us. Not only is this seen as us having a home for ourselves away from others but almost as also having a mental sanctuary. People will use physical or mental barriers in order to keep others from wherever they’re unwanted (424). When only one person or group claims the function of a space, the control is absolute, producing feelings of security. (424) This, is the largest factor in determining whether a group can endure weeks or months at this location; however, as we have seen it is not the only contributing factor. The territory must be able to separated into private spaces for the occupants to maintain their own customization. Further more there must be an area to collect together, to allow fellowship to provide a sense of unity among the members. This is an example of where environmental psychology intertwines with social psychology (422). Sociology What is the advantage of a group as apposed to going it alone? No worries about what other people want, you can travel at your own pace, no arguments to worry about. At first glance going alone seems like the simplest plan for survival. Nevertheless, this is rarely the case in movies. And the answer is not simply because more people increases dialogue and drama. People are social beings today for obvious benefits, but it has been part of a clear survival strategy that mankind has most likely always stuck to (485). There is obvious truth in the phrase â€Å"strength in numbers†. Later on, though, we will see that this physical strength my come at a cost. First, image a person who has just run into several other survivors. The person my be excited to see others, but still skeptical in the back of their mind of the new strangers. If a person believes he or she can complete a task more easily if they are with others as opposed to if they were to go alone, the person will more than likely join or form their own group (Cialdini, 427). At first these people cannot just be considered a group. Given the situation, it can either be spoken amongst them, or simply implied by all running in the same direction. Whatever the means are, these people are making the decision to become a group then by their actions. Groups become more unified though two means, first is the enjoyment of being with the other member in the group (rarely is that so in this situation) and the second option is based off of how committed all the members are to the specific task they are all gathered together to complete (423). The members have come together with the common goal of staying alive and are relying on the others to help increase their odds of staying safe. In spite of this, the ties to one another are still weak. Very little has been established between them, only the understanding that they are all using each other for survival. Now assume that our hypothetical micro society has manages to get to safety in a suitable shelter. Once things begin to calm down then they will begin the normal group activities. If group size increases beyond a dyad or triad, a distinct leader will tent to step forward or be chosen by the members (Borgatta, 1118). Once this leadership role has been established tasks will often be assigned. Everyone is familiar with the basis types of conversation that is used to get to know someone. As we learn about a person’s past we get to know them, building a sense of unity. In small groups or micro societies an individual fuses into the group by having some of their common life and goals added to the group’s (Benokraitis, 130). If this sense of common life is not shared by all then tensions begin to form. This is seen in Danny Boyle’s 28 Days Later when Jim and Selena do not share the same common goals with the soldiers of making the only woman (still alive) have sex with all the men in order to stay there. As a person can see, this scenario is very difficult to manage. In contrast to typical life; where you can look at a group, see if it suits you, and leave if it does not. If the members are thrown together like this, there is no established group norm, making it very easy for one or more members to become unhappy with something going on. This potential for conflict increases with the number of members that enter the group. The ideal number of people is up to five or six people, this allows for easy communication and adaptation (Borgatta 1118). Stress After you have managed to paint your new bedroom, and you have won the Nobel Peace Prize for getting your group in line, you still have to deal with some other stresses. But first let us begin with a quick understanding of stress. No situation is inherently stressful, but rather an individual must see the situation as involving threat, harm, loss, or challenge. (Levins 640) Obviously in a zombie apocalypse someone can expect there to be a large amount of stress surrounding them. When faced with stress a person undergoes a coping process to try and regain control of the situation. Psychological, emotional, or behavior reactions are provoked by any of three distinguished stressors. Cataclysmic events: such as volcano eruptions, floods, earthquakes (zombies apocalypse) etc. Personal life events: illness, family or work issues Background conditions: traffic issues, access to services, noise or crowding. (Kazdin 429) All three of these types of stressors are clearly prevalent, and in fact, almost overwhelming in a zombie apocalypse. Between the dead attacking everyone, all of your loved ones dying, and all of the background conditions like noise and crowding becoming deafening, it is very simple for a person to not be able to handle everything that is going on. Luckily, in some sense, the body is actually prepared to deal with large amounts of stress at one time. While this system is not perfect, it works better than say a computer that would just shut down if overloaded. If there are too many stressors for one individual they deal with an overloaded system by focusing on the task at hand or the ultimate goal that they are trying to achieve. This focus is actually very demanding of an individual and results in fatigue (Kazdin 424). This process can actually be useful in several scenarios to motivate a person in order to complete a task. Still, like everything, a person can still suffer from prolonged exposure to an overload of stress. A person can deal with a great amount of stress, however if these stressors get to be overwhelming or the person is faced with a prolonged period of an overloaded system they could become delusional and even deny the distracting stimuli. If a person is pushed beyond their coping capacity the results could be worsened fatigue (430). This can be very problematic when someone is in such an issue where they cannot go outside. If they are left unattended and become convinced that the zombies are not an issue, they then put everyone at risk if they decided to leave. While someone flat out denying the zombies outside is an extreme case of stress overload, they are many other potential issues that can arise much more easily. Being exposed to stress for too long or repeatedly can result in less tolerance to frustration, shorter attention span, and become less likely to adapt to a situation (Kazdin 429). These three effects are very detrimental to a community that is locked within walls, forced to interact with each other, and with little means to resolve their stresses. While this may not be a group wide condition, these issues caused by stress are still a burden on the group even if only one person is suffering from them. In a group survival scenario being able to adapt to the conditions is key. The inhabitants need to be able to respond properly to any issue that may come about in a territory such as a fire or failing securities. In a similar fashion, it is just as important that frustration does not overwhelm a single person. Frustration is a mood that can easily be transferred from person to person. This is typically the reasoning behind characters having such short tempers and snapping at each other at the climax of movies. This is the point where all their stress is building up to, the point where a group either manages to fix their issues and resolve things, or they collapse and succumb to their fate. Even with all the possible stresses that face a person, the social aspect still comes into play here. If someone’s alternative is to be alone, even without the zombie apocalypse, they’re less likely to leave a group and more willing to put up with stress or even a feeling of hopelessness (Kazdin 448). By this point the members of the previously mentioned micro society have developed some level of bonds varying by the conditions and varying by each member. The members however will still look to the group for support and assistance during struggles with stress. If a member or several members of the group feel like they cannot be helped or that others will not help them they then fall into one of the lowest mental states. Hopelessness eventually sets in after repeated stress and disappointment on a person (Levinson 358) Alas, if a person reaches this point, they are unlikely to attempt to leave the group and go to another location. By this point the most common way a person will leave the group is through suicide. Risk There is one final piece we need to look at in order to fully understand why a person will decide to leave where they are in search of someplace else. This final part of the equation is probably the biggest factor in determining whether people leave a group or simply stay and endure the conditions. This factor is the risk. If motivation explains why the individual takes the risk, what is it that allows the individual to overcome the fear, anxiety, and rational assessment of danger? A 1997 study by Elissa Slanger and Kjell Rudestain identified â€Å"perceived self-efficacy† (a concept named and defined by Albert Bandura) as that element. Perceived self-efficacy is the belief that one can do what is required, that a challenge is within one’s ability. This self assessment may or may not be accurate, because perception of effectiveness is partially independent from actual skill. A complete understanding of risk taking, then, is comprised of two considerations: motivation (be it sensation seeking or sensation seeking in concert with other factors) and whatever it is that allows the isinhibition necessary for a person to overcome the fear and take action. (Borgatta 602) That motivation mentioned above in our case is not sensation seeking, but rather our survivors seeking one of several things. Perhaps to be in a healthier environment; one in which they can act to fulfill higher needs and aspirations. Maybe it is to get away from the current social dynam ics, look for another group with similar common life goals to their’s. Or, it could simply be that stress is building up on some people. They may feel their only escape from stress may be to escape everything and try to start again. Any of these three alone, or combined, could act as the perfect catalyst in someone’s mind. To infect them with the idea as it fester and drives them to ultimately pick up whatever they can grab and head for the door. This may be a solo trip or including the entire group depending on the conditions. Our original survivor, along with a few of his buddies, will prepare themselves at the door. Gun and supplies in hand, one look back at the former home, former group, and former issues reassumes them of their plan as the door opens before them.

Collection of Revenue

CHAPTER ONE Introduction 1. 1 Background of the study Local authority revenue is the money collected from provision of service and donation from individual and other organization. Every local authority globally has its type of revenue that it collects depending upon the environments surrounding it and the type of service it offers to its resident or citizens. The availability control and use of finances are the core of any organization existence and not least local authorities, in them public services role,(Cola, 2002).Infrastructure, social and community services there is the part of and democratic system According to Wood et al (1988), revenue means the sales value of goods and service that have been supplied or sold to the customers. According to Mclaney, (1998) revenue is an increase in wealth rising from trading in goods and services. Nigel et al (1988) noted that the better the service the operations can provide, the better will the potential to attract customer and therefore g enerate revenue.The balance between capacities also affects revenue and demand of goods and service therefore time ensures that all demand is satisfied and no revenue is lost in any organization. The government also assists local authorities by giving grants such as road levy funds; local authorities transfer fund and contribution in lieu of rates due to the growing demand on local authorities. As the argument for new and improved services increases for essential services like closet to the citizens.According to Wakhisi (1994), it was stated that the council should seal all loopholes to enable them become financially stable by intensifying their revenue collection to effectively provide the services required to both the workers and citizens at large. The availability, control and use of finance are at the core of any organization existence, and least local authorities, in their public service delivery role.There are growing demands on local authority funding, as the requirements for now and improved services increase local authorities current or day-to-day expenditure are financed from a range of revenues, payments for the provision of services (charges, rent on property, planning permission fees etc. ), commercial rates and central government grants. On the particular benefit is the comprehensive way in which it identifies the â€Å"funding gap† between the expenditure an authority should incur in delivering its services and the income it should derive from local sources Donughue. 2003). 1. 2Statement of the problem Performance of LAs varies widely. Some clearly are managing to improve service delivery and undertake new projects identified as priorities by citizens like road repairs, bridges, water supplies, drainage, market improvements, street lighting. Others are struggling with past debts, reducing their efforts to collect local revenues because of the easier money from LATF, employing ever more staff, increasing councilor allowances, and opting fo r projects with little or no benefit to citizens.Revenues collected by county and municipal councils include site value, land rent, area development fund, house rent, markets fees, bus parks fees and business licenses. In almost all LAs, there is a huge gap between the formally approved budget and what actually happens. The forecasted revenues cannot be collected, so most LA’s run short of money. For example the County council of Makueni annual budget report, 1998/1999, 2002/2003, and 2008/2009 financial year indicated that there was a problem in revenue collection.The county treasurer expressed her concern on the cash flow problems the council is facing due to non-payment by debtors making it unable to service the escalating debts it owes its creditors. in the department of engineering and urban planning expected income was kshs. 2,733,086 and actual income was kshs. 1,036,726, the department of health and environment expected income was kshs. 1,036,729, the department of fi nance clerk the expected income was kshs. 9,297,777 and the actual income was kshs 1,252,000 and the department of social service the expected income was kshs. 60,834 and the actual income was kshs. 670,000 respectively source: (C. C. M Annual Position for the Financial Year 1998/1999, 2002/2003 and 2008/2009). This research tries to identify the factors that affect revenue collection management by local authorities in Kenya and commend on what to be done to be able to manage the aspect of revenue collection by local authorities in Kenya. 1. 3Objectives of the study 1. 3. 1Main objective The main objective of this study is to investigate the factors affecting the collection of revenue by local authorities in Kenya. . 3. 2Specific objectives (i)To investigate the effects of revenue collectors on `the management of revenue collection. (ii)To investigate tax default as a factor affecting revenue collection management in local authorities. iii)To investigate how leadership affects the m anagement of revenue collection in local authorities. iv)To investigate the effects of political influence on the management of revenue collection in local authorities. 1. 4Research Questions i. How do revenue collectors affect the management of revenue collection in local authorities? ii.How does tax default affect the revenue collection management? iii. How does leadership affect the revenue collection management? iv. What effects does political influence have on the revenue collection management? 1. 5Significance of the study This study will equip the researcher with the knowledge and skills because during the course of the study the researcher will be exposed to so many challenges, which he will be curious of getting solutions about, and also it will widen the scope of his learning then at the end he will have fulfilled an academic requirement.Also it will benefit Makueni county management who understands the meaning behind revenue collection by local authorities and carefully e xamine its purpose and how to devote a great deal of attention to selecting strategies to manage the aspect of revenue collection which will help to satisfy the society’s needs and other stakeholders. Finally Kenya Methodist University will get reference study materials, which will be of great use to the students and the lecturers.And also after fulfilling an academic requirement the researcher will get a certificate, which will boost credibility of Kenya Methodist University to the public and world at large. The study will benefit the following groups of stakeholders; 1. 5. 1 Employees The study will assist revenue collectors to know the importance of collecting all revenues with a high sense of duty, discipline and honesty pertaining to the services rendered. It will develop team work and collective responsibilities between the management, employees and the residents to develop Makueni district. . 5. 2 Management This work will assist the policy maker to adopt other strateg ies of enhancing revenue collection so as to reduce accumulation of debts outstanding. It will assist the management to avoid having poor budgetary control system where service department make commitment beyond the approved budget levels. It will assist the management to utilize properly all the revenue collected by giving the required services to the residents so as to motivate payments promptly. 1. 5. 3 The PublicThe study will create awareness among residents on the services provided, those to be provided by the management and the importance of paying for the services rather than evading payment. 1. 6Scope of the study The study will focus on investigating the management of revenue collection in Kenya. The target will be county council of Makueni. The respondent will include revenue collectors and the manager’s team who are revenue users and they will be met at their work station and their respective offices. The study will be carried out from March to June 2013.Questionna ire and interviews will be used to gather information. 1. 7Limitation of the study The main limitations of the study will be; 1. 7. 1 Top management Most of top management may not cooperate very much and there might be inadequate information from the staff. 1. 7. 2 Documentation There may be no enough documentation availed for scrutiny, the unveiled ones, may be confidential. 1. 7. 3 Security Most of the top offices in the city council are usually a no-go zone as they are mostly manned by the NCC security personnel. 1. 8Delimitation This research will be conducted within the following parameters: i.Only collection of revenue factors identified as relevant to this research will be considered for inclusion in the study. ii. Only Makueni County will be included in this research. Other counties in Kenya are excluded. iii. Results of this research will depend upon responses of the revenue collectors, manager’s team who are revenue users and inferential statistics data analysis out come. 1. 9 Definitions of terms 1. 9. 1 Revenue Collectors The revenue collectors are the employees of the LA’s responsible for collecting the different fees and charges of the authority.They should be competent professionals of integrity and sound ethical morals for good management of revenue collection. 1. 9. 2 Tax Default Tax default by the relevant institutions and business people leads to uncollected revenue and making the administration of the revenues hard. 1. 9. 3 Leadership The way any LA is led by its officials is an essential factor on how the revenue is managed. Corrupt leadership has led to the mismanagement of authorities hence leading to the collapse of many and failure to deliver services. 1. 9. 4 Political InfluenceThis is the influences that satisfy comes mostly from councilor and other government officials to satisfy their own selfish gains through unofficial ways. CHAPTER TWO 2. 0LITERATURE REVIEW 2. 1Introduction This sectionhighlights literature so as to find out what other researchers have contributed, and the extent of their research regarding this field of management of revenue collection in local authorities. The main factors of consideration in this study are also reviewed to bring out a clear understanding of their effects in revenue collection management. 2. Theoretical review 2. 2. 1 Continuous change theory Shone L and Brown (1978) the advocates of the theory of change argued that, a theory of change is simple, step by step model describing the program inputs and the expected outcomes of your effort. Theory of change should be a useful tool – a lens that gives the management a sharp focus on the steps it needs to take, or a strong well placed lever that can help move just the right mountain. This theory will force Makueni County to clarify their assumption about how change will happen in collection of revenue.A general statement of intention will not do this for it, because theories of change are not mission stateme nt or broad visions. They are exact and somewhat exhaustive plan that show every step, however large or small. Theories of change should be specific, detailing advocacy actions Makueni County will take and the intended results. A detailed theory of change will give a credible, well drawn blueprint for advocacy work and a clear basis for evaluation of Makueni County much simpler. 2. 2. 2 Theory of planned behavior Theory of planned behavior of Adzen (1988) helps us to understand how we can change the behavior of people.It’s a theory that predicts behavior, because behavior can be planned. This theory is a successor of the similar â€Å"Theory of reasoned action† (1975) by the same author. Adzen argues that behavior appears to be 100% voluntary and under control. It argues that behavior of others greatly affect how people behave towards a product or company. This theory will help the people concerned with collection of revenue determine the behavior of the clientele and come up with ways of how to change their behavior, if its negative , and how to encourage a positive behavior.For instance with effective collection of revenue are likely to change the behavior of the way the local authorities manage the aspect of revenue collection. 2. 2. 3 System approach theory of management According to British researchers from the institute of human relations, Katz et al (1996) came up with the theory and viewed on organization as an open system. In this theory they had the following suggestions; first, that the main functions of an organization is to receive inputs or energy from the environments where inputs include material, people, information and finances.In this case local authorities receive revenue from the service users or the residents and other donors. Secondly the inputs received are then converted to outputs i. e. the revenues collected enables the provision of services required by these residents as shown here below. Environment inputConversion ou tputEnvironment Source: Cole (1999) Thirdly, that open systems discharge their output into their environments whereby services that are generated are then taken to the required environment to be used and then generate more revenues and profits, which are fed back into the organization to provide further inputs and the cycle continues.Lastly, one of the key features of open system is its independence on the environment. County council of Makueni as a system is interdependent with its environment for its existence and stability. Just like a human body the central nervous system and cardio-vascular system are the major sub-systems and the same applies to county council of Makueni that is divided into sub-system, i. e. the five departments, which are independent of one another and to the environment surrounding them. 2. 3 Empirical review 2. 3. 1 Effects of revenue collectorsAccording to World Bank (2000) the local government revenue collection systems are often characterized by a huge number of revenue instruments. However, the main sources of ‘own revenues’ are usually property rates in urban councils, business licenses, market fees and various uses charges, often in the form of surcharges for services provided by or on behalf of the local government authority. Nevertheless, experiences from a number of African countries show that these revenue instruments have serious shortfalls.For instance, property taxes can be very costly to administer (Brosio 2000; McCluskey and Franzsen 2005), and the enforcement of user fees has resulted in widespread resistance to pay from the poorer segments of the urban population in some countries (Fjeldstad 2004; Fjeldstad et al 2005). Moreover, complex business licensing systems have proved to be major impediments for the start-up and expansion of especially micro and small enterprises (Devas and Kelly 2001; Sander 2003; Pimhidzai and Fox 2011).However, experience shows that when well administered, these revenue instru ments can provide substantial and reliable Revenues for urban municipalities. 2. 3. 2Property tax Empirical studies by Serwanga, (1992) on revenue assignments between various levels of government generally argue that few fiscally significant taxes are more appropriate to local administration than property tax. This is due to the fact that real property is visible, immobile, and a clear indicator of one form of wealth.Hence, in principle, property tax is difficult to avoid and, if well administered, it can represent a non-distortional and highly efficient fiscal tool. Property tax as an annual tax on real property is levied in all countries in Africa (McCluskey and Franzsen 2005). Commonly it is a local government tax, levied mainly in urban areas . Rural properties are often not taxed, although property taxation is being extended to rural properties in some countries such as South Africa under the terms of the Local Government: Municipal Property Rates Act 6 of 2004 (Franzsen 2007). Where differential rates apply, the tax rates for residential properties tend to be significantly lower than the rates for commercial, industrial, and government properties, where these are taxable. 2. 3. 3 Business licenses In Africa, the standard mechanisms for mobilizing revenues from businesses have been through licensing. Although the original intent was regulatory, local business licensing has increasingly become simply a revenue source in most places (Lubega, 2000). Typically, business licenses generate between 5% and 30% of local government own revenues in urban councils.In many countries, however, the system has been quite unsatisfactory, often quite inequitable, and has imposed huge costs on business, while generating relatively little money. According to Chitembo, (2009) the regulatory aspects of the license system have been largely abandoned. In addition, poor policy design and weak administration mean that license coverage; assessment, collection, and enforcement rates are low, leading to poor revenue generation. Thus, many existing business license systems across Africa contain serious defects.These include (Devas and Kelly 2001: 385): High compliance costs to businesses, due to multiple licensing and complex procedures; Tariff structures that are complicated and do not reflect ability to pay; A process loaded with ineffective regulatory requirements, which provide opportunities for rent seeking; Poor administration and evasion, which reduce the tax base and generate inequities; and a revenue source that generates relatively little income for local governments. 2. 3. 4 User fees – linking payment and service deliveryBrun, Chambas and Fjeldstad, (2012) argue that taxes are not the best mechanism for matching demand and supply of public services. Better links can be achieved through cost-recovery charging systems, which tie the amount paid directly to the amount consumed. By providing a more direct link between citizens’ contributions and service delivery, such mechanisms may become effective means to recover the costs of service provision, and to promote efficiency in the consumption of the service. Hence, most observers argue that user fees should play a prominent role in local government finance (Bahl et al. 003: 76; Bird 2001). The main economic rationale for user charges is not to produce revenue, but to encourage the efficient use of resources within the public sector. When properly designed, user charges provide information to public sector suppliers on how much clients are willing to pay for particular services and by ensuring that the public sector supplies are valued by citizens. Free or subsidized services may result in over-consumption of such services. Moreover, it may prove difficult to target the beneficiaries of free services (Rondinelli et al. 000) Local government authorities commonly experience difficulties in collecting taxes, fees and charges (Bird. 1989). Thus, there are many experiments be ing carried out to find solutions to make tax collection more revenue productive (Allingham, and Sandmo, (1972). Practices for collection of local taxes range from cases where local government authorities collect the taxes themselves to cases where tax collection is outsourced to private agents, semi-private partners and the central government.Market cooperatives and private companies collecting tax on behalf of the local government are examples. Revenue collection is outsourced to a range of different types of agents within and across councils. A major challenge facing privatized revenue collection in local government authorities is to assess the revenue potential for various tax bases (Serwanga, (1992). Commonly, revenue assessment is conducted on an ad hoc basis, often based on the previous year’s reported collection.Substantial underestimation of the revenue potential may imply that actual collection by the agent is substantially higher than what is reflected in the contr act. Consequently, there is a risk of ending up in a situation where the agent keeps the substantial portion of the revenues collected, which already seems to be the case in some council (Lubega, 2000). 2. 3. 5 Effect of tax default According to Bahl, & Bird, (2008) taxes are widely perceived to be unfair. The citizens see few tangible benefits in return for the taxes they pay.This situation heightens taxpayers’ perceptions of exploitation from an unequal contract with government, and may promote tax resistance. Although most taxpayers are unable to assess the exact value of what they receive from the government in return for taxes paid, it can be argued that they have general impressions concerning their terms of trade with the government. In this context, it can be assumed that taxpayers’ behavior is influenced by their satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the terms of trade with government.Thus, if the system of taxes is perceived to be unjust, tax default may be co nsidered as an attempt by the taxpayers to adjust their terms of trade with the government. Chon and Reinikka (1999) argue that people engage in tax evasion when the expected benefits(low taxes) are equal to the expected costs(bribes and punishments)This tends to agree with Alongham and Sandmo(1992) who also suggested that a rational individual’s choice to evade will be based on the expected gains or losses associated with the decision.To further the argument, Bird (1989) asserts that defaulters in most developing countries can realistically assign expected value of zero to the likelihood of being detected and penalized; that the more severe the penalty, the less likely it is to be applied which showed a weakness in administration.Contrary to that view, Wentworth et al (1985) asserted that causes of tax defaulting are the exchange, social class and chances available for evasion . Evaders in that study reported that they were not getting value for their money, tax rates were t oo high and that government did not spend payer’s money wisely, that the burden of taxes fell on low income and salary earners. 2. 3. 6 Forms of tax evasionAccording to Mwenda (2009), tax evasion can take any of the following forms: Failure to report incomes profits or gains otherwise legally chargeable to tax; Reporting only part of the income gains or profits; Maintaining false books of accounts with intent to reduce taxes; Making false claims of expenses or allowances or deductions; Under declaration of goods for duty purposes and Outright smuggling to avoid payment of duties 2. 3. 7 LeadershipOne of the major issues in governance is demonstrated in the fact that citizens continue to demand the devolution of power and resources to local units (Chitembo, 2009). A close scrutiny of the management and performance of existing local authorities shows that most local authorities in Kenya are not only poorly managed, but are also close to financial insolvency. Whilethe central go vernment in Kenya manages plans and develops policies in regard to the whole nation’s affairs, local authorities tend to have jurisdiction limited to the city, municipal, county or town councils (Economic Survey 2005).Naturally therefore, their level of action is quite limited as compared to the central government. In spite of the limits of their action, most local authorities act as the avenues for implementing decisions formed by central government at the local level; however, a review of press reports and accurate surveys undertaken within Kenya hasrevealed that there is disillusionment with the performance, management and competence of local authorities in providing the services that they are mandated to provide (Odhiambo, Mitullah&Kichamu, 2005).It is clear that local authorities are not only failing to provide a satisfactory level of services but are also poorly managed and have departments that are among the most corrupt within the public sector in Kenya. A further ind ication of the growing dissatisfaction with the services provided by the existing local authorities is seen in the rise of residents associations which are prepared to resort either to court action or to campaigns aimed at withholding of the rates due to councils as a mechanism for compelling local authorities in Kenya to provide services on a regular basis (Odhiambo, Mitullah&Kichamu, 2005).Against this background, it is important to make an assessment on the reasons for this all round poor performance of local authorities before appropriate proposals for reformsreforms and improvement are made. 2. 3. 8 Political Influence Performance of the local authorities in Kenya is not only affected by the lack of autonomy from the Ministry for Local Government. The prescribed manner of enlisting councilors and personnel is prone to abuse.Since the Local Government Act (Cap 265) allows for the appointment of councilors by the president, oftentimes such councilors are reluctant to submit to th e authority of the managers in the local authorities. In situations where the councilors are elected, experiences of political party influence also arise. This difficulty is often reflected in councils in which the political divisions are so sharp that councilors are permanently preoccupied with gaining immediate political advantage over their opponents.In some cases, personnel are hired without the consideration of their ability to perform the tasks at hand. Councilors and executive committees of the local governments were initially engaged in power struggles, rather than focusing on their core functions in their first five years in office. This competition has prevented a focus on institutionalization and development. However, it is worth mentioning that, for the last several years, the â€Å"fever of competition† subsided mainly due to the increasing understanding of the councilors.Councilors should demonstrate a greater degree of responsibility and concurrently work towar ds a delivery of services, such as the improvement and construction of roads, often in partnership with local communities and some UN agencies (Economic Survey 2005). 2. 4 Research gap From the empirical literature review, it is clear that taxation by local governments is important for raising the required revenue for the local authorities. Management of revenue collection in most local authorities in Kenya has not been effective.Very little attempt has been made to improve on revenue collection. Planning the same has not been impressive either. In most cases the Audit department which acts as a watchdog of all financial management, specifically revenue collection in various collection centers suffer significantly from shortfall such as proper approach to audit work, lack of experience and planning techniques, lack of professional etiquette, reliance on manual systems and lack of training leading to poor revenue collection Audit which leaves some leakage for misappropriation.Interfe rence from political leaders seriously hampers operations in revenue collection in their wards. There is need to assess the factors that affect the collection of revenue by local authorities in Kenya. Revenue collectors need to use all the pieces of law at its disposal against all tax defaulters and ensure recovery even if it means use of courts of law. This is important given the fact that a lot of revenue is being lost through tax evasion and avoidance. Local governments have the mandate to raise their own revenues to finance their activities.However much as the government is said to have sovereign right to collect taxes, nobody likes paying taxes and yet everybody appreciates that taxes need to be paid. This drives some persons into the act of tax evasion. Tax defaulting has sound effects on the revenue collection by local authorities. At the same time, there is need to study the specific effects of tax collectors on the management of revenue collection by local governments. Very little research has been done to investigate the effects of leadership on the management collection in local authorities.There is also need to investigate the political influence effect on the management of revenue collection by local governments Revenues for the local authorities have persistently fallen short of targeted due to various challenges in revenue collection, tax evasion, poor leadership and political influence in the management of local authorities. Not much literature exists in this field. It is this reason that has prompted this research to try finding out the factors that affect the collection of revenues by local authorities hence filling the literature gap in factors affecting revenue collection by local governments in Kenya. . 5 Conceptual framework Figure 2. 1 Conceptual framework Independent variable Dependent variable Source: Author 2013 2. 5. 1 Revenue Collectors The revenue collectors are the employees of the LA’s responsible for collecting the differ ent fees and charges of the authority. They should be competent professionals of integrity and sound ethical morals for good management of revenue collection. 2. 5. 2 Tax Default Tax default by the relevant institutions and business people leads to uncollected revenue and making the administration of the revenues hard. 2. 5. 3 LeadershipThe way any LA is led by its officials is an essential factor on how the revenue is managed. Corrupt leadership has led to the mismanagement of authorities hence leading to the collapse of many and failure to deliver services. 2. 5. 4 Political Influence This is the influence that satisfies comes mostly from councilor and other government officials to satisfy their own selfish gains through unofficial ways. 2. 6Operationalization In this section the use of indicators that influence the successful outcome of revenue collection process will be identified and used to measure the variable against the parameters.The variables will be measured against the parameters and statistics. For local authorities to achieve its goals, collective goals setting between the manager and subordinate should be done. This research will establish whether performance management goals are achieved ensuring employee flexibility and acceptance of the goal set. It will further determine the level of employee empowerment and control against and control against the performance standards and targets as a parameter. The performance evaluation would be measured taking into consideration the time frame and feedback received.The reward system parameter would be analyzed top measure its impact on employee motivation and commitment. 2. 6. 1 Operational framework Figure 2. 2 Operational framework Dependent Independent Measurements SOURCE: AUTHOR 2013 CHAPTER THREE 3. 0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3. 1 Introduction This chapter discusses the research design, methods and procedures used by the researcher to carry out the study. The research design, target population, sample, design, data collection instruments and data analysis methods are explained in this chapter too. . 2 Research design This research will apply descriptive design. Descriptive design involves field survey where the researcher goes to the population of interest to ask certain issues about the problem under the study, Kothari (2000). The design is used to obtain information concerning the current status of the phenomena to describe what exists, with respect to variables or condition in a situation. The inference design uses the existing information available to gather data for analysis.Research design aims to gather data without any manipulation of the research context, where the researcher has got no control over the variable, Mugenda and Mugenda (1999). 3. 3 Target population The target population of the study in the county of makueni will comprise top managers, middle level managers, lower level managers, operational staffs and treasurers. The categories are represented in the table 3. 1 below. Table 3. 1 Table showing study population categoryTarget populationpercentage Top managers 105% Middle level managers2010% Lower level managers 3015% Operational staffs10050% Treasurers5025%Source; Author (2013) 3. 4 Sample design, procedure and size The researcher will use stratified random sampling design. The target population will be divided into subgroups and respondents picked randomly from the target population. A sample size of 200 respondents will be selected from the five population categories using a ratio of 0. 5 where a total of 100 respondents will be selected to achieve at least 50% of the target population. The sample of respondents from the target population will be as; 10 top managers, 20 middle level managers, 30 lower level managers, 100 operational staffs and 50 treasurers.This will make all the respondents in the target population to have equal chance of participating in the study. The participating respondents will then be picked randomly from eac h sub group and issued with questionnaires. The sample sizes are as shown in the table 3. 2 below. Table 3. 2 Table showing sample size CategoryTarget populationSample ratioSample size Top managers100. 55 Middle level managers200. 510 Lower level managers300. 515 Operational staffs1000. 550 Treasurers500. 525 Total2000. 5100 Source: Author (2013) 3. 5 Data collection instrumentsThe researcher will use questionnaires with open and closed ended questions to collect the required data. This is because the questionnaires are easy to administer and gives qick, accurate statistics where a large number of respondents is used. 3. 6 Data analysis The researcher will use descriptive and quantitative data analysis to enable to describe the distribution of data. Frequency and percentage tables will be used to interpret the data and a presentation of the same will be made by use of pie charts and graphs. REFERENCES 1. Allingham, M. G. nd Sandmo, A (1972) Income Tax Evasion: A Theoretical analysis , Journal of Tax and Public Economics. Vol. 1 No. 3/4pp. 41-57. 2. Bahl, R. & Bird, R. (2008) Subnational Taxes in Developing Countries: The Way Forward. Public Budgeting & Finance, Vol. 28(4), pp. 1-25. 3. Baskin, M. (2010) Constituency Development Funds (CDFs) as a Tool of Decentralized Development. Overview paper presented the 56th Commonwealth Parliamentary Conference, 10-19 September, Nairobi. 4. Bird, R. M (1989) the Administrative Dimension Of Tax Reforms In Developing Countries. In 5.Brun, J. -F. , Chambas, G. and Fjeldstad, O. -H. (2012) Local government taxation in Africa. Paper prepared for ICTD (draft). (Brighton: International Centre for Tax and Development). Chapter 2 (pp. 23-63) in Local government finance: the challenges of the 21st century. Second Global Report on Decentralization and Local Democracy. Barcelona: United Cities and Local Governments. 6. Chitembo, A. (2009) Fiscal Decentralisation: A ComparativePerspective. Civil Society Representatives Sitting on the Zambian National Constitutional Conference (NCC). Lusaka. . Dillinger, W. (1991) Urban Property Tax Reform: Guidelines and Recommendations. Urban Management Programme Tool (Washington D. C. : The World Bank). 8. Etzioni, (1986) Tax Evasion and Perceptions of Tax Fairness: A Research Note Journal of Applied Behavior Scient Vol. 2 No. 2 pp. 177-185. 9. Lubega, (2000),Income Tax Evasion In Uganda’s Informal Sectors , A Dissertation Submitted by M. A. At Makerere University, Kampala 10. Of Uganda’s Experience, 1970-1992: Thesis for M. A EPP: Faculty of Economics and Management, Makerere University, Kampala. 1. Serwanga, J. (1992). Government Tax Revenue Decline and Recovery: An empirical Analysis 12. Tax Reform In Developing Countries. Duke University Press, Durham and London pp. 315-330. 13. World Bank (2000) Entering the 21st Century. World Development Report 1999/2000 (New York: Oxford University Press for the World Bank). Yatta, F. and Vaillancourt, F. 2010. ‘Afr ica’. 14. Modern Local Government in Kenya,Nick G. Wanjohi, Konrad Adenauer Stiftung (KAS) and Agency for Development Education &Communication, Nairobi, 2003

Marriage and Cohabitation

Cohabitation Research Paper Cohabitation and marriage both share effective similarities and differences. Within the last 40 years both have grown closely to represent two individuals that have a motive in life which involves commitment, financial responsibility, and the disposition to spend a majority of your life with one person. The subject of cohabitation is a popular one among many college students, upperclassmen, and middle aged divorced individuals in this day and age. In this essay we will be looking at the detailed facts in why people cohabit before they are married, why they do it and most importantly why cohabitation is not considered immoral behavior in the twenty first century as it was 40 years ago. This research will also contain real individual perspectives which will widen our thoughts and assumptions behind the theory of cohabitation. In today’s society there are many couples that are living together before getting married. The US Census Bureau calls cohabitation POSSLQ (pronounced possel-kews), which is understood as â€Å"shaking up†. The number of unmarried couples in the U. S. has increased from 0. 4 million in 1960 to almost 7 million in 2008. In the mid 1990’s more than 60 percent of American’s cohabited. (Benokraitis, pg. 246) There are advantages and disadvantages when considering cohabitation. Some of the rewards of living together before marriage are some such as getting to know your partner better, learning about one's ability/habits, if they are able to satisfy your expectations, finding common grounds, and most of all to gain that special commitment with one another. On the other end there are disadvantages in living together before marriage, some being, not having much of personal space, religious outlooks, not being able to handle fights in a proper manner, going against family values, and most of all doing it for the wrong reasons. Almost half of young Americans say they will not marry someone unless they live with them first but on the other hand most Americans reject cohabitation on moral and religious grounds. Cohabitation has increased dramatically from 40 years ago, â€Å"In 1970, about 530,000 couples reportedly lived together outside of marriage. This number increased to 1. 6 million in 1980, 2. 9 million in 1990, 4. 2 million in 1998, and 5. 5 million in the year 2000. † (Diduck, Alison. Marriage and Cohabitation. Aldershot, Hampshire, England: Ashgate, 2008. Print. ) As statistics show, there has been a huge change in our life styles over the years. Unmarried couples over sees 17 percent of all relationships today. This trend is mostly happening in the younger age groups, ages 18 until 30 and for the older age groups the percentage is considerably lower. This is because many cohabiters, if they are still together by then after many years, they tend to eventually get married. There are many different types of cohabitation, the most common ones are, dating cohabitation, premarital cohabitation, trial marriage and substitute marriage. Dating cohabitation usually occurs with young adults sometime during or after college. These young adults take place in cohabiting for a combination of reasons, some being for convenience, sexual needs, companionship, and financial benefits. This kind of relationship is somewhat like being single and for that reason is tends to terminate faster than any other. Premarital cohabitation is a basic â€Å"test† for the couple to see if they are committed enough to move to the next step, which is marriage. Trial marriage is a type of cohabitation for partners that doubt they can succeed in a marriage and everything that it holds. Finally, substitute marriage is a long term relationship between two people living together that don’t plan on getting married. Cohabitation is followed with more detailed than what is classified, but is outlined with these characteristics. This has created a percentage that nine out of ten women will spend one point in their lives in an unmarried cohabiting relationship, an extensively higher percentage than woman who will get married at some point in their life. (Glenn T. Stanton. The Ring Makes All the Difference) This seems to be slowly devaluating the importance of marriage and the secrets involved in it. Also, studies have shown that when individuals are cohabiting they don’t fully understand the adaptation that is needed; this comes from the lack of commitment and stableness for that next step. The cohabitation effect naturally takes place in most situations, people tend to accept their living status with their partner and treat it as a marriage. Cohabiting gives the individual something to hold on to it a relationship which shows they aren’t in a stable environment to begin with. Studies show that woman try holding on to every relationship they are involved in by cohabiting. When this is done woman are usually left pregnant or with children, without a partner and in poverty. Statistics show that woman who cohabit two or more times end up in divorce 141 percent igher than the average woman who only cohabits with the person they marry. Many authors, such as Linda J Waite have made comments stating, â€Å"These tentative and uncommitted relationships are bound together by the ‘cohabitation deal’ rather than the ‘marriage bargain,’ but that deal has costs. † The â€Å"cohabitation deal,† will have especially disappointing outcomes for people who expect it to deliver the same benefits the â€Å"marriage bargain† delivers. People who cohabit often say that marriage is just about a piece of paper. However, that there is quite a bit of difference between being married and living together. † (Waite, Linda J. and Christine Bachrach. The Ties That Bind: Perspectives on Marriage and Cohabitation. ) Results have shown that when couples cohabit together, they’re usually shortly lived, and typically don’t last longer than two years, after that it either goes into the next level which is marriage or dissolves into a break up. There are no signs that cohabitation is forming in a long term alternative to marriage in the United States. Cohabitation still remains in the status of temporary convenience for growing relationships but just because an individual lives with their partner doesn’t mean it’s considered a stable social arrangement between the two. Researchers says that the convenience of moving in together does not compare on the same level to making a thought through decision on committing to one person for the rest of your life. This has nothing to do with just having it on paper or not, people tend to get the statement mixed into the actual concept. The process of getting married includes the commitment, responsibility, maturity, devotion, respect, genuine love and experience that shows this is what you are asking for in a life partner, but not because we can or want to just live together. Marriage basically finalizes that this is the path you picked for yourself and not because it was wanted at the time or an easy change but because it was truly wanted. When two people agree on marriage this shows they are developed enough where they want to share what they have built of themselves with their partner and share that success as they grow together rather than trying to complete one another without much thought. This is what separates cohabitation and marriage, in marriage one has seen things at its worst and knows the effort it will need to keep the relationship strong and healthy. This is done because both parties have the determined thought through agreement established and because of that, cohabitation will never replace marriage. One opinionated advantage of living with your partner before marriage is getting to know a person that you might marry with. It is important for a person to know almost everything about the other person that he/she is going to get marry to. People need to know how a person is handling his/her life from all aspects such as behavior, emotional, mental, financial and other things before a person decides to get married to them. This can’t be analyzed just by seeing them when out on dates, it is said that it’s important to live together for a while before deciding whether it is the right choice for marriage or not. On another note, unmarried couples do not have the same rights as married individuals. Through my face to face 6 interviews, it was noticed that a cohabiting relationship depends on each individual, their style, family background, emotional status, age, and the morals and values they established for their lives. I interviewed five women from the ages of 23 to 26 and one 30 year old male. When asking interviewee A what her views were towards marriage, she responded saying, â€Å"marriage is similar to a business partner, and both individuals need to be devolved on their own so that both can bring something into the relationship. † This was followed by asking what her views were about couples who live together who are not married, â€Å"I think if you are ready for marriage and starting a family with the person you love then settling to move in with them will not fulfill your goals. Her statement gave me a reminder to the saying â€Å"why buy the cow when the milk is free† this is true, because cohabiting can just be a way of delaying a marriage from happening. Interviewee A- â€Å"cohabitation cannot default into marriage, reason being, marriage is completely different then just living together, this is when your lives become one and so many responsibilities fall into line tha t wouldn’t be talked about if only living together. Does a premarital living arrangement make for a stronger marriage down the line? One should not need to live with their partner first in order to make a stronger marriage. If the couples are in the correct mind set then it should only bring in positives such as love and support. When you come from a certain culture, cohabitation is not accepted, that’s why this also depends on ones background. Marriage is classic, traditional, cultural, and most of all marriage is something sacred between two people, and the idea of cohabitation growing takes away the value of marriage until it vanishes. (Interviewee A, age 25, in a three year relationship, denied her boyfriend from moving in with her, interview took place for 30 minutes face to face on Oct. 30th 2011) Second interview took place with Interviewee B, which responses took a different tour. When asking interviewee B what her views of marriage were, she said â€Å"marria ge is a beautiful thing that joins two people together in order to fulfill a happy life, experiencing things emotionally, physically, mentally, and socially together. Interviewee B is â€Å"pro-cohabitation† because she feels that it is very important to experience life with someone first by living with them to see if it’s a right â€Å"fit† for your life style. She feels this also helps marriages from later on ending up in divorce. When getting in to depth, interviewee B said, â€Å"It is important to first make sure this is a person you love and want to make a future with before moving in, at least know them for a year. Marriage is not defaulted in, living together is the test and if you pass the test then marriage is the next step up! I feel the longer one cohabits, the stronger the relationship is because you know what you’re getting into and continue together on the say level. Depending on the individual, this can create dependence, but shouldn’t if you’re not trying to fill an empty spot in yourself. A lot of people move in together because of family issues, and moving in makes life easier. If men can have it their way, marriage would disappear but it won’t as long as it’s still every little girls dream to have her special wedding. (Interviewee B, age 23, recently came out of a two-year cohabiting experience, boyfriend changed after moving in together; interview took place for 30 minutes face to face on Nov. 1st 2011) Interviewee’s C and D both had the same thoughts towards cohabitation which might be because they both come from the same cultural background. When asking interviewees their views towards marriage they responded, â€Å"A marriage is something sacred betwe en two people in love. God gave us the gift to have feelings for someone else and because of that we should cherish and respect it. Interviewee C, moving in together before marriage defeats the purpose of a marriage and the outcome wouldn’t be the right one. † Interviewee D â€Å"Woman give in too easily and will fall for anything if it has to do with some kind of commitment. Everything comes at the right time, cohabiting is not one of them† Both interviewees, â€Å"It depends on the situation, but a lot of times they default into marriage only because they became so used to the person they live with and other times they don’t get marriage because they moved too fast. Interviewees both agreed that cohabiting builds rapport, love and support but only because one is living with someone they invested in and these characteristics come naturally by default. † Interviewee C, â€Å"I think that one day people will one longer get married because America ac cepts and influences the cohabitation behavior, if its accepted in society, it will take over† Interviewee D, â€Å"I don’t think it will happen unless the law changes, but as of now you don’t get the same benefits when you cohabit which makes them different† Both interviewees said, â€Å"The U. S. is liberal to many different things, which are followed with different cultures and religions. The way one is raised dictates whether or not people are influenced by cohabitation. Everything makes a difference, race, culture, religion, morals, values, and each lifestyle. We value ourselves too much to just live with someone without any ties attached. If you are a strong individual, you wouldn’t find a need to live with someone before marriage. (Interviewees C and D, twin sisters, 24, both still live with their parents at home and will never cohabit under any condition; interview took place for 40 minutes face to face on December 1st 2011) Interviewee E was the final interview which completed the variety of opinions. Interviewee E, â€Å"marriage is something held with a person you trust, value and are able to spend the rest of your life with. Couples who move in together are inexperienced in life and think that moving in with someone will bring them into adulthood, which i t doesn’t. It depends on how old and how ready they are to know if they will marry by default. I think cohabiting will only fail the relationship because should only move in together if they are planning on starting a life and family together not because it’s easy or saves one money. Cohabiting is a train wrack waiting to happen, one will get sick of the other faster than falling in love with them. Nothing can replace the value of marriage except the ones who disrespect the meaning of it. This would be a bad thing if it did happen because we are breaking traditions that have been around for decades. I feel the people who cohabit were not raised well enough to understand what they are actually doing. † (Interviewee E, 30, cohabited with the person he ended up divorcing, interview took place for 45 minutes on December 3rd 2011) Interviewee F, â€Å"marriage is over rated and misleading to someone who’s jumping into a serious relationship. Living with someone before marriage is great because you get the advantage of understanding someone better when living with them. I think by default cohabiters need to make the next step, either get married, or divorce. This will make a strong marriage because it’s basically a marriage just without the legal mess. Anyone who lives with another for a while ends up sharing something naturally because you’re in their presents every moment. Our social structure allows us to do whatever we want, I feel the cohabitation percent will raise which will give people the choice if they want a legal marriage or not. I think the only bad outcome is not getting legal benefits when cohabiting. (Interviewee F, 29, single but has been in 4 different cohabiting relationships, interview took place for 30 minutes on December 3rd 2011) As you can see, all had different perspectives. I believe that comments from interviewee A fell into the same category as researchers and facts based statistics and interviewee B’s outlook was more based on emotions and lack of personally experience. Both interviewees C and D had strong outlooks to their opinion and how cohabitation is looked upon. A greater impact fell with interviewee E because I was able to interview someone who personally experienced the down falls of cohabitation. The after effects from cohabitation seem to lead to a corruption of thoughts on marriage. Studies have also shown that most couples living together before marriage either split up before they are married or wind up in divorce. Interviewee E found out that his partner was cheating during their cohabiting era and in their marriage which caused him to believe cohabiting is built for a failing marriage. Cohabiting has serious consequences for the well-being of an individual and their relationship. In particular, cohabiting is bad for the women because it could mean there are committed to something untrue which will emotionally drain them and keep them from developing into strong independent individuals. Evidence shows that marriage is healthier and better than any other marriage â€Å"form† which should never be out sourced. In conclusions, after the collective research and data gathered, a better overview can be developed in greater detail. What advantages does cohabitation have over marriage? The idea that a cohabiting relationship is equivalent to marriage is undoubtedly unfounded. Research has showed a large difference in the commitment within the two types of relationship. I can see why cohabitation has become more accepted considering society does it for the wrong reasons such as, family and employment issues and trying to find an easy way out, but when doing so this only jeopardizes a future marriage. This is when a new marriage leads to divorce, without self development one is not able to contribute the proper needs and wants in a marriage. Couples want stability and security, this doesn’t happen overnight just because you move in together. A healthy marriage happens when you discover your partner inside and out to the point that you realize you were made to establish a life together, as one. Work Cited 1) Benokraitis, Nijole V. Marriages ; Families: Changes, Choices, and Constraints. 7th Ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall, 2011. Print. 2) Ihara, Toni Lynne. Living Together a Legal Guide for Unmarried Couples. Berkeley: Nolo, 2006. Print. 3) Diduck, Alison. Marriage and Cohabitation. Aldershot, Hampshire, England: Ashgate, 2008. Print. 4) Waite, Linda J. , and Christine Bachrach. The Ties That Bind: Perspectives on Marriage and Cohabitation. Vol. 10. New York: Aldine De Gruyter, 2000. Print. 5) Interviewee A, age 25, in a 3 year relationship, denied her boyfriend from moving in with her, interview took place for 30 minutes face to face on Oct. 30th 2011 6) Interviewee B, age 23, just got out of a 2 year cohabitation, boyfriend changed after them moved in together, interview took place for 30 minutes face to face on Nov. st 2011 7) Interviewee C, 24, still lives with parents at home and will never cohabit under any condition; interview took place for 40 minutes face to face on December 1st 2011 8) Interviewee D, 24, still lives with parents at home and will never cohabit under any condition; interview took place for 40 minutes face to face on December 1st 2011 9) Interviewee E, 30, cohabited with the person he ended up divorcing, interview took place for 45 minute s on December 3rd 2011 10) Interviewee F, 29, single but has been in 4 different cohabiting relationships, interview took place for 30 minutes on December 3rd 2011 11) Cohabitation, Marriage, Divorce, and Remarriage in the United States. Hyattsville, MD: Dept. of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics, 2002. Print. 12) Landale, Nancy S. Statistics on Cohabitation, Marriage, Divorce, and Remarriage in the United States. S. l. : S. n. , 2002. Print. Ser. 23. 13) â€Å"Statistics on Living Together Before Marriage. †Ã‚  Ray Fowler . org. Web. 06 Nov. 2011. ;http://www. rayfowler. org/2008/04/18/statistics-on-living-together-before-marriage/;.

Religious Studies Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Religious Studies - Research Paper Example However, a problem arises when God is thought of as a physical or metaphysical being because if this were true, God must have been created by something else, which is inconsistent with the belief that God created everything including time and space. The nature of God’s being cannot be imagined and certainly not positively identified; therefore the proof must be found in observing events that could occur only as the result of a creator. This paper will not rely on theological reasoning to supply an answer because this would rightfully be perceived as biased information. Rather, it addresses the concepts of open-mindedness and critical thinking. It will also draw from some of the great thinkers in history including John Hick, Immanuel Kant, David Hume, Isaac Newton, Karl Marx, Hildegard of Bingen, Descartes, Stephen Hawking and John Milton as well as the physical sciences and philosophical disciplines to provide evidence or disprove the existence of a higher power. John Milton a rgued that a restriction on the freedoms of thought also indicated an expectation that the citizens should allow someone else to do their thinking for them. This lack of use would lead to the same decay in form and ability that could be seen physically when muscles of the body were not used, creating people who were no longer able to determine morals and ethics on their own. This creation of automatons with no capacity for thinking on their own would serve only the devil’s work as it separates them from their natural spiritual path. He uses as support for his argument the idea that even God himself opted not to have automatons serving him on earth, but instead imbued mankind with the ability to think, and choose, for himself. Pointing to human reactions as proof, Milton said no one respects, loves or honors things that give love, obedience or devotion merely as a result of force or fear of the consequences. Instead, he says it is only through effort and experience that we are able to come to realize the depth of love freely given from one to another. In the same way, he says God places tests in front of people as a way of measuring them, testing their spirit and beliefs, allowing them to further define themselves in God’s own image if they so choose or to veer off in their own direction. â€Å"God therefore left him free, set before him a provoking object, ever almost in his eyes; herein consisted his merit, herein the right of his reward, the praise of his abstinence† (Milton, 1927). According to Milton, God intentionally places temptations and risks in front of us as a means of helping us to develop spiritually. By removing these tests and obstacles, the government is forsaking the intentions of God, standing in the way of the spiritual development of the nation and leaving it ripe for moral, ethical and social decay. As God himself entrusted the care, guidance and governance of each spirit each to itself, Milton argues that it is not th e place of the state or the church to impose its will upon the choices of the individual. Thus, religious liberty is defined as being the ability to exercise the freedom of choice in relation to what a man does, reads, thinks, speaks and dreams. In his arguments regarding the nature and existence of God, Descartes said that it does not matter whether we are dreaming or not because whatever our intellect tells us is, in fact, true. One of the first things that he perceived in this line of thought was that he had a

The use of DNA to exonerate an individual under the post-conviction Essay

The use of DNA to exonerate an individual under the post-conviction use of DNA evidence or the evaluation of blood-alcohol level - Essay Example Generally, to be admissible the scientific evidence must have probative value. To add, the evidence has to be shown to have sufficient basis to produce uniform and reasonably consistent results that influence materially to the ascertainment of truth. Like all other criminal cases, the prosecution in DUI offences, have the duty to prove beyond the reasonable doubt that, at the time of the offence, the accused blood alcohol concentration was beyond the statutory limits (levinson D 2002). In most jurisdictions, the statutory limit range from 0.08% to 1%. Consequently, it is crucial for the prosecution to obtain biological samples, for example, blood, urine or expired air that would conclusively prove that the accused blood alcohol level was beyond the statutory limit. Therefore, forensic evidence is paramount, to show that the real blood level concentration, that it exceeded the limit. To obtain the blood alcohol concentration, police extracts body substances of the suspect which they s ubject to testing. However, in the field, it is impractical to obtain and test blood and urine sample due to the expertise and time required. Therefore, police rely on the use of breath testing devices, (of which breathalyzer is one the various types.), since they are easy to operate, precise and reliable in the field. The breathalyzer operates through testing of the suspect’s expired breath or the alveolar air. It operates on henry’s law that states that at, a constant temperature and pressure, the concentration of a gas that has dissolved in a liquid is proportional to the concentration of the air that is directly above it. Therefore, the alveolar air expired is usually at equilibrium with blood. Consequently, the breathalyzer works on the assumption that the alcohol concentration in the alveolar air has a direct relationship with the blood alcohol concentration, BAC. Upon consumption, alcohol is neither digested nor chemically altered in the circulation. While the b lood passing through the lungs, some of the alcohol passes through the membrane and into the air sacs (alveoli) in the lungs, and it evaporates since it is volatile. Therefore, it mixes with the alveoli air, which is subsequently exhaled. Hence, the concentration of alcohol in the air sacs is equivalent to that in that, in the blood. The exhaled air is the one that is detected by the breathalyzer. The alcohol concentration in the alveolar air exhaled is then augmented by a factor referred to as the partition ratio. This is done to relate the reading to BAC, through conversion of the concentration measured in the breath to the matching alcohol concentration in the blood. The breathalyzer works on the assumption that the ratio of the ratio of breath alcohol to blood alcohol is 2100:1. This means that the concentration in every 2100 ml alveolar air is equivalent to that in 1Ml of blood (Begleiter H, Kissin B 1996). The breathalyzer has a mouth piece through which the suspect blows the exhaled air and a sample of the same goes to the sample chamber. What follows is a series of chemical reactions. The breathalyzer contains a system to sample the breath of the suspect, 2 glass vials that contain chemical reaction mixtures, and a series of photocells joined to a meter to that measures the color change that results from the chemical reaction. For effectiveness, the breathalyzer must be administered by a qualified operator and

Human Resources Strategies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Human Resources Strategies - Essay Example The perception in this form of human resource management is that no single department can effectively manage the organization’s human resources. The HR Triad is a form of human resource management through partnership in three levels of an organization. These levels are the line managers, HR professionals, and the employees (Jackson et. al r 23). This form of human resource management is present in many big companies like International Business Machines (IBM). The organization distributes human resource management duties among the three levels. The line managers in the organization are accountable for managing the people in their departments, regardless of whether they have ever held a position in human resource management department or not. These individuals must have HR expertise. Despite having an effective HR department, the department does not bear all responsibilities of the organization in human resource management. This tasks lies with the line managers. ... ng the selection process, arranging interviews, developing or choosing valid and reliable selection tests, keeping records and monitoring outcomes for legal compliance. Others are selecting and evaluating vendors of selection services, and training other individuals involved in the selection. The roles and responsibilities of HR professionals and line managers are important, but the HR Triad encourages even more sharing of roles and responsibilities. Regardless of employees’ jobs, they share some responsibilities of an effective human resource management. For instance, employees can provide a good input for performance appraisal of their supervisors and colleagues (Jackson et. al 36). However, the most significant role of employees is assessing their values and needs, and managing their careers in accordance with their input in performance appraisal. Other roles of employees in the HR Triad include applying for promotions and transfers, attending training in the selection proc ess, and informing line managers of forms of disabilities that may require accommodation in the organization. The IBM Company upholds respect for its employees, implementing policies like the Open Door policy, the Speak Up program, and carrying out regular comprehensive Employees Opinion Surveys. IBM’s commitment in improving the well-being of its human capital has gained the company a respected reputation in HRM throughout the world. The success of the company in the management of its human resource results from creative and continuous research and implementation of innovative programs that improve professional and social experiences of all employees. No single wing of the HR Triad is responsible for the effective management of human resources in IBM, or any other organization for that matter

Should Texting Be Ban During Driving Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Should Texting Be Ban During Driving - Essay Example 2008) According to a CBS News correspondent Kelly (2009), the issue of mobile phone usage while driving has been a heated one over the time. In the United States, a split over the cell phone policy became evident when the Republican Senator Wagner, D-Chopee and the chair of the committee, Steven Baddour proposed to have a bill (H 3354), aimed at regulating cell phone usage within a car, with lawmakers and advocates terming the practice as the "new drunk driving." He also stated that all states needed to emulate the six States that have banned cell phone usage while driving, i.e. New Jersey, New York, California, Connecticut, Washington and Utah. This is not to mention the thirteen States that have completely banned text messaging for all drivers, i.e. Arkansas, Alaska, Colorado, California, Louisiana, Connecticut, Maryland, New Jersey, Minnesota, Utah, Tennessee, Washington and Virginia. (Kelly Cobiella, June 11, 2009) Jackson (2008) commented, "The American Insurance Association's members are responsible for handling 20% of the bay State auto insurance market". The association has declared that it supports the bills seeking to ban text messaging while driving, using an earpiece or speakerphone on a mobile phone, as well as banning of any use of any mobile phone for drivers under the age of 18 years. The Statehouse News Service also reported on the 11th of June that twenty five people had been killed in a train collision the previous fall, which included the train driver who had been spotted sending text messages moments before the fatal crash. The person who had spotted him was a student, who said, "Even if you take your eyes off the road for two seconds, you could drive off the road or hit another car". (Jackson, Maggie 2008, pg 111-115) Scope of Use of Cell Phone Texting In the today's world, text messaging is the most widely used data service, with over 35% of all mobile phone users in America, or over 4.5 million out of over 8 million phone subscribers at the end of 2007 being active users of the short message services. In the same time, other countries like Finland, Norway and Sweden have over 72% of the population using the short message services (SMS). In Europe, an average of 85% by the end of 2007 and North America rapidly catching up at over 56% of active SMS users, clearly shows the scope of use of the service. This coupled with the 2001, Global Messaging Survey by Nokia indicate how addictive text messaging can be. (Gogging and Peterson 2008) Other studies have been carried out by the Catholic University of Leuven in Belgium in 2004, and others by the University of Queensland in Australia, which concluded that text messaging is the most addictive digital service on mobile or internet, even to the levels of addictiveness experienced by cigarette smokers, where the user gets into a habit of text reception and a need to remain connected known as "reachability" .This habit has resulted in SMS becoming widely used in delivering digital content such as news

Law Enforcement Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Law Enforcement - Essay Example Problem solving teams or quality circles 2. Self managed work teams 3.Cross functioning teams and lastly, 4. Virtual teams. (Robbins 2003, P.259). In the context of legal enforcement, the problem solving team would typically comprise of around 8 - 10 agents or officers, who would be required to crack cases and bring action for prosecution of alleged offenders and criminals. The team would be mostly within the force, and they would share methods, information and evidences, by which the guilty could be brought to the process of law. The main difficulties and drawbacks would be their inaccessibility to evidences and information from outside organization, and also their inability to get all concerned people totally involved in the case-cracking ventures. Next, it is the self-managed work teams which are independent teams which not only solve problems but also take up full responsibilities for their outcomes. They are fully involved in their works from conceptualization of their work processes till the achievement of final results. This team is fully at liberty to choose their own teams, and therefore, there is a greater degree of autonomy and transparency in their operations. However, this team is limited by the absence of functionaries from other departments and functions to participate and contribute in this team building. The third type of work teams are called cross functional teams which are ind

Lab report (exercise physiology unit) Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

(exercise physiology unit) - Lab Report Example determine Heart Rate training zones, recovery and much more.   Lactate is a metabolic product that can be measured by taking a drop of blood at a finger tip the same way diabetics monitor their blood sugar level.   The blood lactate level increases with exercise intensity and shows clearly the transition from aerobic to anaerobic activity.   Since the measurement is completely individual it gives a precise method for testing and monitoring training intensity and recovery.   (FaCT Canada Consulting Ltd, n.d.) Two body fat tests were performed on a 22-year old male named Dave. Firstly, skinfold measurement was done. In this case two methods were employed namely, Jackson and Pollack Method (1978) and Durnin and Wormersely Method (1974). Secondly, Dave underwent a Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis (BIA). The table below shows the data gathered from the two body composition tests. Using the formula to calculate the percent body fat for Jackson and Pollack Method and using the table provided for Durnin and Wormersely Method the percent body fats are 5.6 and ~12.9 respectively. The percent body fat calculated showed a discrepancy thus using skinfold method measurements is not a valid predictor of percent body fat; however they can be used as a monitoring device to indicate changes in body composition over time. Dave’s Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis (BIA) provided a percent body fat of 16%. According to the table above Dave fall under the description of ‘Fitness’ thus we can say that his percent body fat is appropriate and acceptable for his age. The table above shows a part of the blood lactate test results of Dave. We can observe the significant increase of heat rate as the time of exercise progressed. Blood lactate concentration, and changes in it, result from the balance between adding lactic acid to the blood, and the clearance of lactate from the blood by muscle and the heart for metabolic purposes. At rest and low exercise intensities, lactic acid’s

Role of Strategic Information Systems in Airline Industry Essay

Role of Strategic Information Systems in Airline Industry - Essay Example At the end of the report a conclusion is given that further emphasizes the vitality of information technology in the industry, in general, and relates this importance with the business objectives of the organizations and their need to maintain a competitive edge in their current market. Every organization in modern business world, from and medium organizations to larger ones, depends on the updated use of information technology for their survival. For the larger companies the use of information technology is vital to maintain and control the amount of data involved. For example, Organizations like oil and gas supply companies, telecommunication giants and power and water companies cannot cope with the amount of customer bills every month or every quarter with out the use of information technology. The manual route to handle these jobs would be excessively complicated and will not allow the companies to make any profit. Such is the case with all the larger organizations such as banks and product based companies to all the major governments and government entities. The According to an article published in the IT supplement of The Daily Telegraph; larger organization today cannot last for as short as 24 hours if the IT support they enjoy is taken away from them (Laudo n & Laudon, 2006). Airline industry is one of the largest industries in the business world today. The amount of administrative and operations activities that are required is huge and extremely specialized in nature. The need of every small to medium and larger companies, in the airline industry, to remain in the development stage of their life cycle demands the usage

Henry Fayol Essay Example for Free

Henry Fayol Essay The Industrial Revolution of the 19th Century had paved the way to the development of organized systematic approaches to management. One of the most influential contributors to the management theory is Henry Fayol. He was the first management theorist who used the term ‘administration’. His theory is generally understood as administrative management theory or Fayolism. In his theory, he focused on the top-level management and managers’ actions, divided the activities of an organization into 6 groups and identified 6 managerial qualities for a manager. Importantly, he devised the famous 14 principles of management and 5 elements of management process. After this, people begin to study his theory and accord the full positive evaluation of his contribution until some decades after his death. This project assignment gives a review about the overview of life and the development of key work of management theorist, Henry Fayol. The aim of the project is to understand his concepts of management that are practical in top-level management. Another goal with the project is to examine his principles and elements of management as guidelines to be applied for all managers. And also, this project assignment gives some points of view about his theory contributes to modern concepts of management and his achievement in his lifetime. Henry Fayol was a French administrative management theorist and well-known as the father of modern management. He had a extraordinary life. He was born on 29 July 1841 in Istanbul, Turkey. Born that year, his father was an engineer who was appointed superintendent of works to build a bridge over the Golden Horn in Istanbul. A few years later, he and his family returned to France in 1847 when he was a child. Had a period time, Fayol studied at the mining school ‘Ecole Nationale Superieure des Mines’ in Saint-Etienne of France and eventually graduated in 1860. When he was age of 19, he began working as an engineer at a large mining company which a coal-mining and iron foundry combine, ‘Compagnie de Commentry-Fourchambeault-Decazeville’ in Commentry, France. Through his efforts, he was promoted as mines manager and ultimately became the managing director of the company in 1888. He changed company’s operation with his entrepreneurial approach to management thinking. At that time, the company employed more than 1,000 people. By 1900, the company was one of the largest producers of iron and steel in France and regarded as a vital national industry. In his career, he held that position over 30 years until 1918. Unfortunately, he was dead at age of 84 on 19 November 1925 in Paris, France. As early as 1900, Fayol formulated and wrote papers about his administrative management ideas from his own experiences. He examined the nature of management and first mentioned the ‘elements’ of administration which came from his book. His book was published in 1916 and was named as ‘Administration Industrielle et Generale’, a comprehensive theory of administration where he described and classified administrative management roles and processes. In 1949, Constance Storrs translated his book in English and entitled ‘General and Industrial Management’ which led to his theory was recognized by others. Henry Fayol emphasized the importance of taking a wider view on the organization as a whole, but the analytical approaches were similar. In his work, ‘General and Industrial Management’ which was published in English in 1949, he outlined his theory of general management which he believed could be applied to the administration of any industries. He enlightened managers on how to accomplish their managerial duties and the practices in which they should engage. He paid attention to the functions of administration and to this end he presented the principles and elements of management. As Fayol mentioned in his book: â€Å"Everyone needs some concepts of management; in the home, in affairs of state, the need for managerial ability is in keeping with the importance of the undertaking, and for individual people the need is everywhere in greater accordance with the position occupied.† excerpted from General and Industrial Management. Firstly, Fayol observed the organizational functioning from manager’s point of view. He found that all activities of an organization could be classified into six groups. These six groups of activities always present in a managerial post and are clearly shown in the following figure 2. Figure 2: 6 Activities of an Organization Technical activities relate to production, manufacture and adaptation; Commercial activities involve buying, selling and exchange; Financial activities search for capital and its optimum use; Security activities look for protection of property and persons; Accounting activities include stocktaking, balance sheets, costs and statistics; Managerial activities consist of planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating and controlling. Fayol pointed out that these activities exist in every organization. He argued that all managers required capability in all six functions. He also insisted that the managerial position determined the level of each function where full covered the total job and varying percentages should be assigned to each function. He further observed these six groups of activities and divided his approach of studying management into three parts: managerial qualities and training, general principles of management and elements of management process. In managerial qualities and training, Fayol identified the essential qualities required for a manager. According to his observation, the qualities of a manager have to possess under six aspects of qualities. These six aspects of qualities required are clearly shown in the following figure 3. Figure 3: 6 Managerial Qualities Physical qualities contain health, vigour and address; mental qualities contain ability to understand and learn, judgement, mental vigour and capability; moral qualities contain energy, firmness, initiative, loyalty, tact and dignity; general education means that having basic common sense; special knowledge means that peculiar to the function being performed; work experience mean that arising practice from the work. The possession of these qualities differs in degree between a manager and another. The implication is that a manager may be more suited to a post which emphasizes the need for one or other of the six functions. Fayol listed the need for management training and then identified 14 principles of management to serve as guidelines to help management resolve work problems and manage their affairs more effectively. The 14 principles of management are clearly shown in the following figure 4. Figure 4: 14 Principles of Management Division of work is the first principle. Fayol believed that if a person specializes, that person will concentrate in the same matters and acquire a special ability and accuracy that will increase the effectiveness and consequently the productivity. The right or power to give orders to subordinates is authority. Fayol remarked that authority comes with responsibility and vice versa. A manager should not be given authority without responsibility and should never be given responsibility without the associated authority to get the things done. Discipline is certainly essential for the smooth running of business. Employees must obey the organizational rules. Good discipline must result from an agreement between firm and employees with fairness and clear understanding of both sides. Fayol realized that different orders from different bosses may bring the problems and proposed the unity of command which means that an employee should receive instructions from one superior only in order to avoid conflict and confusion. Fayol explained that unity of direction is organizational activities with the same objective should be guided by one manager, using one plan. It is essential to focus the effort in the same direction and ensure action is properly coordinated. About subordination of individual interest to general interest, the interests of one employee should not be allowed to become more important than the group. It is important to separate personal and business affairs. While an employee is working, his mind and thoughts should be about the job and business goals. Every employee is worthy of his salary and it must be totally fair. In the best case, it would satisfy the firm and the employee. Also, rewards should be used as a tool of encouragement. This principle is analyzed by Fayol as the remuneration. Centralization is about proportion and individual cases. Fayol remarked that the degree of centralization varies according to different cases. This principle refers to how close employees are to the decision-making process. It is important to aim for an appropriate balance. The line of authority from top to the lowest ranks of management is scalar chain and it is related with the centralization. Fayol pointed out that some procedures need speedy actions and for this reason it is just needed the approval of the immediate superior. Employees should be aware of where they stand in the organization’s hierarchy or chain of command. Order refers to everything should have its place. Materials and people should be in right place at right time in the workplace. The workplace facilities must be clean, tidy and safe for employees. Fayol regarded equity as a sense of justice and fairness should pervade in an organization. Managers should be kind and fair to their subordinates at all times, both maintaining discipline as necessary and acting with kindness where appropriate. Fayol analyzed the stability of tenure of personnel is a reflection of a good running of the business, an employee takes time to adapt to a position and a turnover is not efficient. So, personnel planning should be a priority. Managers should strive to minimize employee turnover and ensure replacements at hand when vacancies arise. Initiative is commonly known as thinking out a plan and doing what it takes to make it happen. Fayol said that the initiative of all represents a great resource of strength for businesses and a manager should grant satisfaction to subordinates. Management should encourage employees to originate and carry out plans, this will increase their confidence and so they might feel more valuable for the company. This urging tends to boost levels of effort. Esprit de corps is the last principle. It emphasizes organizations should strive to foster team spirit is the way to construct harmony and unity among employees. Fayol desired the efficient team work by using extensive face-to-face verbal communication in order to accomplish this objective. It is important to stress that the 14 principles are not rigid and the principles enunciated are not aimed at being exhaustive. Fayol emphasized the universality of such principles and their applications are not only to business but also for the success of all associations. As Fayol mentioned in his book: â€Å"Seldom do we have to apply the same principle twice in identical conditions; allowance must be made for different changing circumstances†¦ Therefore principles[must be] flexible and capable of adaptation to every need; it is a matter of knowing how to make use of them which is a difficult art requiring intelligence, experience, decision, and proportion.† excerpt from General and Industrial Management. From these principles, Fayol concluded that management should interact with personnel in five basic ways in order to plan and control production. According to him, â€Å"To manage is to forecast and to plan, to organise, to command, to coordinate and to control†. He stated that management should be viewed as a process consisting of 5 elements which go hand in hand with the principles. Therefore, the management process was represented by these 5 elements are shown in figure 5. Figure 5: 5 Elements of Management Process Planning is one of the most important elements in ensuring business success as it predicts future events that determine the next move of the organization. Planning is related to forecast that examine how the future would be like; foresight, prevent and design actions in advance. It is necessary to identify what are the goals and how to accomplish them through a strategy, considering the realistic capabilities and resources to determine appropriate organizational goals. According to Fayol, â€Å"The best of plans cannot anticipate all unexpected occurrences which may arise, but it does include a place for these events and prepare the weapons which may be needed at the moment of being surprised†. Organizing involves ways which organizational structure is developed as well as the flow of communication and authority. Fayol argued that once a plan of action is designed, management need to put the plan into practice and organize the practicality of achieving those plans. Management also need to provide everything necessary to carry it out; including raw materials, tools, capital and human resources. This can be from recruiting the right staff, to organizing the restructuring of the structure of the company so it operates in an efficient manner. Commanding is how management direct staffs through effective communication and the use of discipline and remuneration. Management need to implement the plan and have an understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of their personnel. Fayol stated that management must encourage and direct personnel activity. Management must motivate their staff whilst at the same time meet the goals and target that have been set. Coordinating means that management must work to harmonize all the activities to facilitate organizational success. Communication is the prime coordinating mechanism. Fayol stated that management must make certain that personnel work together in a cooperative fashion. Put simply, things should work together effectively and efficiently. So when planning the structure of the organization, management need to make sure that different sections work and support each other in helping the organization do well. Controlling is the final element of management process involves the comparison of the activities of the personnel to the plan of action and it is the evaluation component of management. Fayol stated that management should monitor everything occurs in conformity with policy and ensure personnel follow their commands. Management have to make sure that any problems sufficient actions plans are put in place to rectify the problem. At the end of the day, it is management’s responsibility that the organization has done well. As Fayol mentioned in his book: â€Å"The responsibility of general management is to conduct the enterprise toward its objective by making optimum use of available resources. It is the executive authority, it draws up the plan of action, selects personnel, determines performance, ensures and controls the execution of all activities† excerpted from General and Industrial Management. Simple term, planning is the most important managerial function. Organizing and commanding function is necessary to execute plans. Coordinating is necessary to make sure that everyone is working together and controlling looks whether everything is proceeding according to the plan. Fayol believed that management ideas should be taught, managerial ability was required for businesses to succeed and management was a separate activity that applicable to all types of undertakings. He also believed that managerial practices were the key to predictability and efficiency in organizations. It is important to understand that it really needs intuition to propose such significant ideas in the environment where there are no clear boundaries of worker and management responsibilities, no clear indicate the effective work standards and no clear concepts about how organizations work and how they should be structured or managed. In this case, Henry Fayol offered universal managerial prescriptions for all organizations to solve the problems. Therefore, Fayol’s main contribution is in the point that he was the first management theorist who devised a complete set of general administrative management theory by suggesting what managers should do and how organizations constitute good management practices. He emphasized on the functionality and organizational structure, dividing the work in functional areas and implementing the general principles of any organization. Fayol’s theory views management as a profession that can be trained, developed and emphasized the broad policy aspects of top-level management. It underlined all elements necessary to organize and manage organization as a whole. And also, his practical list of principles helps managers learn how to organize and interact with their subordinates in an effective way. At the present, most of managers are using his theory as a guidelines that how they deal with the everyday problems of managing the entire organizations. This explains accurately that his theory is a great contribution to management and business studies. More than nine decades have passed since Fayol’s theory was proposed. As we are moving into the age of rapid industrial and technological development, we might think the elements and principles of management in his theory are only common sense at present. And even later, some scholars had adopted his theory as the basis and developed new modern management theories. Undoubtedly, Henry Fayol is rightly seen as a key influential contributor to administrative management of thought. It is essential to remark the achievement of Henry Fayol who through a laudable efforts, developed his labour career in a company in the area of the mining industry in his country, where he entered as engineer by profession at young age after being promoted to mines manager and retired as a managing director. He knew how to reorganize and manage the company, expand its business and at certain point he is credited with turning the company around from a threatened bankruptcy into a strong financial position by the time of his retirement at age 77. During Fayol’s last few years, he wrote down the classic book, ‘Administration Industrielle et Generale’ based on his personal experiences in his managerial lifetime. His work was a product of more than 50 years of practice and study of management. He dedicated all his efforts to promote the administrative management theory as a fundamental tool for the good performance of all kinds of organizations. He established the nowadays important 14 principles and necessary 5 elements that are management needed. Fayol’s achievement is as a result of his in depth studies and analysis of the reality of management; studying, analyzing and preparing his conclusions and his work in a personal and independent way. Once again, just as in the case of his excellent and classic works about the problems of the mines, the brilliant managing director and successful managing methods, would take his time to create a new classic success to form a new doctrine: ‘The General Management’. Hence, it has to be restated that his theory has a significant influence on modern management and lay down the foundation with a simple way of how management interacts with personnel. Nowadays, all organizations consider his theory as a relevant guide to productively managing staffs, in order to manage the organizations more successful. As we know, management is the process of getting people that work towards to accomplish desired goals and objectives together; its main purpose is to help activities can be completed more efficiently and effectively. In this project, we found that Henry Fayol concentrated on top-level management and viewed management processes from the top down. His administrative management theory gives us comprehensive statements of general management and provides us valuable insights into managing effective and efficient organizations. It is clear that his theory is important and useful knowledge for all students who study about management issues. We students should learn his theory seriously in order to meet practical needs and apply it in our future career life.